Developmental Model for Prospective Male and Female US Air Force Special Warfare Candidates: Part 1 – Background

by John Mata, CSCS,*D, TSAC-F and Lauren Haydu
TSAC Report May 2023
Vol 68, Issue 2

Share:

This article seeks to explain the differences between males and females in training and adaptations, as well as provide actionable guidelines to improve performance.

Paywall block issue

This article is not configured properly for members or paid content.
isMemberOnly: {{isMemberOnly}} | isPaidContent: {{isPaidContent}}
spc: One or more parts of the product SPC is missing.

Read the full article

View the video

Login to view more


{{discountDesc}} Valid thru {{discountEnds}}

This {{ogType == 'video.other' ? 'video':'article'}} is available with a NSCA membership

This {{ogType == 'video.other' ? 'video':'article'}} can be purchased for {{prices}}
Price includes membership pricing and promotions

Purchase this {{ogType == 'video.other' ? 'video':'article'}}. Price range: {{prices}}
Price range includes membership pricing and promotions

Become a Member Add to Cart Login

This article originally appeared in TSAC Report, the NSCA’s quarterly, online-only publication geared toward the training of tactical athletes, operators, and facilitators. It provides research-based articles, performance drills, and conditioning techniques for operational, tactical athletes. The TSAC Report is only available for NSCA Members. Read more articles from TSAC Report 

Related Reading

Share:

References

  1. Ansdell, P, Brownstein, CG, Škarabot, J, Hicks, KM, Howatson, G, Thomas, K, Hunter, S, and Goodall, S. Sex differences in fatigability and recovery relative to the intensity–duration relationship. The Journal of Physiology 597(23): 5577-5595, 2019.
  2. Ansdell, P, Thomas, K, Hicks, K, Hunter, S, Howatson, G, and Goodall, S. Physiological sex differences affect the integrative response to exercise: Acute and chronic implications. Experimental Physiology 105(12): 2007-2021, 2021.
  3. Armstrong, N, and Welsman, J. Sex-specific longitudinal modeling of short-term power in 11-to 18-year-olds. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 51(5): 1055, 2019.
  4. Beaupré, G, Orr, T, and Carter, D. An approach for timedependent bone modeling and remodeling—Theoretical development. Journal of Orthopaedic Research 8(5): 651-661, 1990.
  5. Bell, N, Mangione, T, Hemenway, D, Amoroso, P, and Jones, B. High injury rates among female army trainees: A function of gender? American Journal of Preventive Medicine 18(3): 141-146, 2000.
  6. Billaut, F, and Smith, K. Sex alters impact of repeated bouts of sprint exercise on neuromuscular activity in trained athletes. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 34(4): 689-699, 2009.
  7. Billaut, F, and Bishop, D. Mechanical work accounts for sex differences in fatigue during repeated sprints. European Journal of Applied Physiology 112(4): 1429-1436, 2012.
  8. Butler, C, Haydu, L, Bryant, J, Mata, J, Tchandja, J, Hogan, K, and Hando, B. Musculoskeletal injuries during U.S. Air Force Special Warfare Training Assessment and Selection, FY 2019–2021. In Press.
  9. Clark, K, Ryan, L, and Weyand, P. A general relationship links gait mechanics and running ground reaction forces. Journal of Experimental Biology 220(2): 247-258, 2017.
  10. Cuk, I, Nikolaidis, P, and Knechtle, B. Sex differences in pacing during half-marathon and marathon race. Research in Sports Medicine 28(1): 111-120, 2020.
  11. Cullen, D, Smith, R, and Akhter, M. Bone-loading response varies with strain magnitude and cycle number. Journal of Applied Physiology 91(5): 1971-1976, 2001.
  12. Esbjornsson-Liljedahl, M, Bodin, K, and Jansson, E. Smaller muscle ATP reduction in women than in men by repeated bouts of sprint exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology 93(3): 1075-1083, 2002.
  13. Griffiths, J, Griffiths, A, Wessler, S, Lewontin, R, Gelbart, W, Suzuki, D, and Miller, J. An Introduction to Genetic Analysis. New York: Macmillan, 2005.
  14. Haizlip, K., Harrison, B., and Leinwand, L. Sex-based differences in skeletal muscle kinetics and fiber-type composition. Physiology 30(1): 30-39, 2015.
  15. Ivey, F, Tracy, B, Lemmer, J, NessAiver, M, Metter, E, Fozard, J, and Hurley, B. Effects of strength training and detraining on muscle quality: age and gender comparisons. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 55(3): B152-B157, 2000.
  16. Judex, S, Boyd, S, Qin, YX, Turner, S, Ye, K, Müller, R, and Rubin, C. Adaptations of trabecular bone to low magnitude vibrations result in more uniform stress and strain under load. Annals of Biomedical Engineering 31(1): 12-20. 2003.
  17. Kiuru, M, Pihlajamäki, H, and Ahovuo, J. Bone stress injuries. Acta Radiologica 45(3): 2004.
  18. Knechtle, B, Dalamitros, A, Barbosa, T, Sousa, C, Rosemann, T, and Nikolaidis, P. Sex differences in swimming disciplines—Can women outperform men in swimming? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17(10): 3651, 2020.
  19. Kubo, K, Ikebukuro, T, Yaeshima, K, Yata, H, Tsunoda, N, and Kanehisa, H. Effects of static and dynamic training on the stiffness and blood volume of tendon in vivo. Journal of Applied Physiology 106:412-417, 2009.
  20. Kubo, K, Ikebukuro, T, Maki, A, Yata, H, and Tsunoda, N. Time course of changes in the human Achilles tendon properties and metabolism during training and detraining in vivo. European Journal of Applied Physiology 112(7): 2679-2691, 2012.
  21. Lassus, J, Tulikoura, I, Konttinen, Y, Salo, J, and Santavirta, S. Bone stress injuries of the lower extremity. Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica 73(3): 359-368, 2002.
  22. Laurent, C, Vervaecke, L, Kutz, M, and Green, JM. Sex-specific responses to self-paced, high-intensity interval training with variable recovery periods. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 28(4): 920-927, 2014.
  23. Lesinski, M, Schmelcher, A, Herz, M, Puta, C, Gabriel, H, Arampatzis, A, Laube, G, Busch, D, and Granacher, U. Maturation-, age-, and sex-specific anthropometric and physical fitness percentiles of German elite young athletes. Plos One 15(8): e0237423, 2020.
  24. Liu, D, Sartor, M, Nader, G, Gutmann, L, Treutelaar, M, Pistilli, E, Iglay Reger, H, Burant, C, Hoffman, E, and Gordon, P. Skeletal muscle gene expression in response to resistance exercise: sex specific regulation. BioMed Central Genomics 11(1): 1-14, 2010.
  25. Maher, A, Fu, M, Isfort, R, Varbanov, A, Qu, XA, and Tarnopolsky, M. Sex differences in global mRNA content of human skeletal muscle. Plos One 4(7): e6335, 2009.
  26. Mata, J., Oliver, J., Jagim, A., and Jones, M. Sex differences in strength and power support the use of a mixed-model approach to resistance training programing. Strength & Conditioning Journal 38(2): 2-7, 2016.
  27. Miller, B, Hansen, M, Olesen, J, Schwarz, P, Babraj, J, Smith, K, Rennie, M, and Kjaer, M. Tendon collagen synthesis at rest and after exercise in women. Journal of Applied Physiology 102(2): 541-546, 2007.
  28. Miotto, P, McGlory, C, Holloway, T, Phillips, S, and Holloway, G. Sex differences in mitochondrial respiratory function in human skeletal muscle. American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 314(6): R909-R915, 2018.
  29. Nikolaidis, PT, Rosemann, T, and Knechtle, B. Sex differences in the age of peak marathon race time. Clinical Journal of Physiology 61: 85-91, 2018.
  30. Nikolaidis, P, Di Gangi, S, de Sousa, C, Valeri, F, Rosemann, T, and Knechtle, B. Sex difference in open-water swimming—The Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming 1875-2017. PLoS One 13(8): e0202003, 2018.
  31. O’Leary, T, Saunders, S, McGuire, S, and Izard, R. Sex differences in neuromuscular fatigability in response to load carriage in the field in British Army recruits. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 21(6): 591-595, 2018.
  32. O’Leary, T, Wardle, S, Rawcliffe, A, Chapman, S, Mole, J, and Greeves, J. Understanding the musculoskeletal injury risk of women in combat: the effect of infantry training and sex on musculoskeletal injury incidence during British Army basic training. BMJ Military Health 0: 1-5, 2020.
  33. Pedersen, A, Aksdal, I, and Stalsberg, R. Scaling demands of soccer according to anthropometric and physiological sex differences: A fairer comparison of men’s and women’s soccer. Frontiers in Psychology 10: 762, 2019.
  34. Pegrum, J, Crisp, T, and Padhiar, N. Diagnosis and management of bone stress injuries of the lower limb in athletes. British Medical Journal 344: e2511, 2012.
  35. Pesole, G. What is a gene? An updated operational definition. Gene 417(1-2): 1-4, 2008.
  36. Psaila, M, and Ranson, C. Risk factors for lower leg, ankle and foot injuries during basic military training in the Maltese Armed Forces. Physical Therapy in Sport 24: 7-12, 2017.
  37. Roberts, BM, Nuckols, G, and Krieger, JW. Sex differences in resistance training: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 34(5): 1448-1460, 2020.
  38. Roth, S, Ferrell, R, Peters, D, Metter, E, Hurley, B, and Rogers, M. Influence of age, sex, and strength training on human muscle gene expression determined by microarray. Physiological Genomics 10(3): 181-190, 2002.
  39. Sefton, JM, Lohse, K, and McAdam, J. Prediction of injuries and injury types in army basic training, infantry, armor, and cavalry trainees using a common fitness screen. Journal of Athletic Training 51(11): 849-857, 2016.
  40. Senefeld, J, Clayburn, A, Baker, S, Carter, R, Johnson, P, and Joyner, M. Sex differences in youth elite swimming. PloS One 14(11): e0225724, 2019.
  41. Seyfart, T, Friedrich, N, Kische, H, Bülow, R, Wallaschofski, H, Völzke, H, Nauck, M, Keevil, B, and Haring, R. Association of sex hormones with physical, laboratory, and imaging markers of anthropometry in men and women from the general population. PLoS One 13(1): e0189042, 2018.
  42. Taanman, JW. The mitochondrial genome: structure, transcription, translation and replication. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta -Bioenergetics 1410(2): 103-123, 1999.
  43. Tiller, N, Elliott-Sale, K, Knechtle, B, Wilson, P, Roberts, J, and Millet, G. Do sex differences in physiology confer a female advantage in ultra-endurance sport?. Sports Medicine 51(5): 895-915, 2021.
  44. Turner, C. Three rules for bone adaptation to mechanical stimuli. Bone 23(5): 399-407, 1998.
  45. Varley-Campbell, J, Cooper, C, Wilkerson, D, Wardle, S, Greeves, J, and Lorenc, T. Sex-specific changes in physical performance following military training: A systematic review. Sports Medicine 48(11): 2623-2640, 2018.
  46. Vikmoen, O, Teien, HK, Raustol, M, Aandstad, A, Tanso, R, Gulliksrud, K, Skare, M, and Raastad, T. Sex differences in the physiological response to a demanding military field exercise. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports 30(8): 1348-1359, 2020.
  47. Welle, S, Tawil, R, and Thornton, C. Sex-related differences in gene expression in human skeletal muscle. PloS One 3(1): e1385, 2008.
  48. Wentz, L, Liu, P, Haymes, E, and Ilich, J. Females have a greater incidence of stress fractures than males in both military and athletic populations: A systemic review. Military Medicine 176(4): 420-430, 2011.
  49. Westh, E, Kongsgaard, M, Bojsen-Moller, J, Aagaard, P, Hansen, M, Kjaer, M, and Magnusson, S. Effect of habitual exercise on the structural and mechanical properties of human tendon, in vivo, in men and women. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports 18(1): 23-30, 2008.
  50. Zingg, M, Rüst, C, Rosemann, T, Lepers, R, and Knechtle, B. Analysis of sex differences in open-water ultra-distance swimming performances in the FINA World Cup races in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km from 2000 to 2012. BioMed Central Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation 6(1): 1-18, 2014.
About the author

John Mata, CSCS, TSAC-F, RSCC

Contact John Mata

Contact John Mata

Your first name is required.
Your last name is required.
Your email is required.
Your message is required.
Your reCaptcha is required.

Your email was successfully sent to John Mata

John D. Mata serves as the United States Air Force Special Warfare Human Performance Squadron Research Exercise Physiologist at Joint Base San Antonio ...

View full biography
#NSCAStrong #NSCAStrong

has been added to your shopping cart!

Continue Shopping Checkout Now